Pakistan has one of the highest levels of casualties in the world due to landmines and explosive remnants of war.[1] In 2017, it recorded 135 casualties, which was the highest in the world and made up 28 percent of the global total.[2] The large number of landmines in the country are mostly as a result of mines contaminating its borders due to conflicts with India as well as the Soviet-Afghan war.[3] Mines have also been planted by non-state actors due to the increasingly widespread availability of such devices.[4] This article discusses the key aspects of landmine use in Pakistan, it starts by explaining what landmines are, followed by a historical analysis of landmine warfare globally, the present-day situation with regards to Pakistan’s commitment to international treaties, and mines under international humanitarian law. It concludes with recommendations to resolve issues relating to landmines in Pakistan.
Landmines as Weapons
Landmines are vessels that contain explosives with detonating/fusing systems which, when triggered by a person or a vehicle, lead to an explosive and incapacitating blast.[5] Landmines, unlike other military weapons, are completely indiscriminate in their operation in that the mine explodes due to mere proximity, contact, or presence of a person or a vehicle.[6] They are unable to tell the difference “between soldiers and civilians, between tanks and tractors, between adults and children”.[7] Landmines are divided generally into two categories: anti-vehicle /or anti-tank mines and anti-personnel (AP mines). Anti-personnel mines are of two types: blast mines and fragmentation mines. The blast mines are laid in the ground (either on the surface or sub-surface) and they explode when someone steps on them. The fragmentation mines are usually victim-activated by tripwires or command-detonated and, when they explode, fragments of metal are projected into the surrounding area.[8]
History of Landmine Warfare
Landmine warfare dates back to the ninth century B.C. when the Assyrian empire would dig tunnels under enemy walls and fortifications, support a wall with dry timbers, and then collapse it by burning the timbers.[9] The Greeks, Macedonians, Romans, and Rhodians all made use of mining as a defence strategy[10] though it was not until the Chinese invented gunpowder in 1044 C.E. that advanced effective mining was used.[11] Anti-personnel landmines were first used by the Confederate Armyduring the American Civil War in the nineteenth century.[12] They were also quite extensively used in both World Wars I and II. During World War I, landmines were used by Prussia, British, and Russia on various occasions. German artillery projected explosive anti-tank mines to combat British armoured tanks. The German military also laid down, marked and recorded minefields in a pattern that was later copied by the Allies.[13] Landmine warfare reached its age of adolescence by the end of the American civil war so when World War II broke out, it had already matured and advanced. After World War II ended, conventional wars made abundant use of landmines and by no means restricted them. The use of landmines was witnessed in the Vietnam War, Korean War, the first Gulf war, Libyan-Egyptian war, Arab-Israeli wars, Iran-Iraq war, India-China war, and India-Pakistan wars[14].
Landmine Use in Pakistan
Pakistan and India have been in a state of war three times since 1947. Landmine use started during the conflict of 1947-48 where landmines were installed on either side of the border for defence purposes. During the 1965 and 1971 wars, installation of landmines increased. However, it was monitored by both parties carefully mapping and marking minefields, and once the conflicts ended, maps were made available for the safe removal of mines.[15] The political situation between India and Pakistan worsened during 2001 and mid-2002 and during this period anti-personnel and anti-vehicle mines were installed along the line of control (LOC) by both parties.[16] In 2017, Pakistan stated that the mines which were installed along the LOC have been cleared and no mines have been installed since then.[17]
The Soviet-Afghan war of 1979 subjected Pakistan to minefield contamination; the Soviet army, the Afghan Army and the Mujahideen laid anti-personnel mines near the Afghan national infrastructure, arable land and even along the borders of Pakistan and Iran.[18] After the Soviet withdrawal in 1989, state and non-state actors pushed the Afghan government to clear the landmines scattered all over the country. The United Nations even deployed mine clearing units to Afghanistan for the said purpose, however, it is reported that approximately 717 square kilometres of landmines were not cleared.[19] Pakistan has stated that the encountered mines on the Pak-Afghan border are the ones left by the former Soviet troops, maintaining its stance that the country has not used landmines along the Afghan border.[20] Nevertheless, the areas surrounding the Durand line are contaminated with landmines, unexploded ordnance (UXO) and improvised explosive devices (IEDs).[21] These are also as a result of ongoing hostilities between the Pakistani armed and security forces against the Pakistani Taliban, Al-Qaeda, as well as Baloch insurgents.[22]
The use of landmines has been quite rampant by non-state actors and during tribal and sectarian conflicts in the South-Waziristan region bordering Afghanistan.[23] In 2018, Pakistan stated that the country is a victim of landmines and improvised explosive devices (IEDs) at the hands of non-state actors and terrorists. It also maintained that the Pakistani security agencies do not use landmines for the maintenance of internal law and order or in counter-terrorism operations.[24] According to the security officials, terrorists laid unmarked landmines, IEDs and booby traps to fortify their positions.[25] The military deployed units to demine and clear contaminated areas but some mines which had previously drifted due to natural calamities such as floods and earthquakes still haunt civilians living near the Pak-Afghan border.
The Impact of Landmines on Civilians
Between 1999 and 2013, the Landmine and Cluster Munition Monitor, an organisation that conducts research for the ICBL-CMC (International Campaign to Ban Landmines – Cluster Munition Coalition) identified at least 3,817 (1,433 killed; 2,291 injured; 93 unknown) from landmines, victim-activated IEDs, and ERW.[26] As there is no official monitoring mechanism to collect data, it is likely that the total number of casualties may be much higher. These casualties occurred due to the lurking presence of mines laid by armed troops along the LOC, mines laid by non-state actors, and landmines and IEDs in the South Waziristan region.[27] In 2017, the Sustainable Peace and Development Organization (SPADO)[28] which is an active member of the Global Control Arms Coalition and International Action Network on Small Arms (IANSA), reported that among 469 casualties in total, Azad Jammu and Kashmir reported 7, Balochistan reported 171 and KPK reported 291 (ex-FATA had a count of 230 out of 291).[29] In the same year, Geneva International Centre for Humanitarian Demining (GICHD) published a report saying that Pakistan had the highest number of recorded casualties from anti-vehicle mines which amounted to 28% of global total casualties.[30]
Sher Mohammad, resident of Khat Kalli, Peshawar, became the victim of a landmine explosion while he was on his way to the mosque.[31] He said to the Express Tribune that he had become a liability for his family of nine. The Pakistan Institute of Prosthetic and Orthotic Sciences (PIPOS) in Peshawar, where Mohammad was being treated, told the newspaper that sixty-percent of the mine blast victims are civilians whilst forty-percent are military personnel and most of the applicants waiting for prosthetics are minors.[32] Such casualties due to landmines and IEDs planted by non-state actor groups continued in 2017[33] and the Pakistan Red Crescent Society stated that the presence of landmines in Gandaw, Dawra, and Landi Kallay in Sipah and Sheen Kamar area near Mastak, KPK, pose a serious threat to the lives of civilians.[34] Children are reported to be at higher risk of unexploded ordnance and landmines as they usually mistake them for toys.[35]
In June 2021, a group of lawyers filed petitions at the Peshawar High Court on account of the killing of 800 people and 4000 cattle in South Waziristan due to 178 mine blasts over the years.[36] The petitioners urged the federal and KP governments to clear the landmine contaminated areas in South Waziristan, mark the affected areas as Red Zones, and pay monetary compensation to affectees and legal heirs of the deceased. The petitioners also requested the court to direct that the police force maintain a register of landmine blast cases.[37] The Peshawar High Court responded that the affectees and legal heirs should approach the relevant administration for the redressal of their grievances but in case they receive no response the court shall be responsible to cater to them. The Additional Attorney General (Peshawar) stated that most areas had already been cleared out by security forces leaving behind a few red zones. An official of the security forces pointed out that during the night miscreants would plant mines, and so the local population should cooperate with the security forces to ensure full clearance of the affected areas.[38]
However, there are reports that NGOs do not have permission to carry out independent risk assessments of mine contaminated zones and people are afraid to talk about the issue openly as if they complain about mines they are jailed.[39]
Mines under International Law
Landmine warfare is regulated by customary international humanitarian law, the 1980 Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons, and the 1997 Mine Ban Treaty. Under customary international humanitarian law, civilians are not to be directly attacked and indiscriminate attacks as well as indiscriminate weapons are prohibited. It is also prohibited to use weapons which cause unnecessary suffering and superfluous injuries.[40] The 1980 Convention’s Protocol II,[41] to which Pakistan is a Party, mandates the Prohibitions or Restrictions on the Use of Mines, Booby Traps and Other Devices. According to the Convention, landmines can only be used to target military objectives; remote mines cannot be used unless their location is recorded and they have a neutralizing mechanism attached; minefields are to be properly recorded; and at the end of hostilities the parties to the conflict have to clear minefields.
The international campaign to ban landmines (ICBL) is a global network that aims to promote and secure an international ban on the production, stockpiling, and use of antipersonnel mines; and obtain resources for civilian demining operations and help the victims of landmines.[42] In 1997, the ICBL was able to mobilize member states, as an official observer, to negotiate a treaty to ban anti-personnel mines.[43] The 1997 mine ban treaty bans the use, production, stockpiling, and transfer of antipersonnel mines, and requires states to destroy their stockpiles and clear all mined areas as well as assist landmine survivors.[44] More than 150 States have joined this treaty and there has been a reduction in the number of mine-induced casualties in these countries.[45]
Pakistan’s Landmine Policy under International Law
Pakistan is not a state party to the mine ban treaty but it has obligations under international humanitarian law to minimize the use of deadly weapons which may result in indiscriminate attacks, unnecessary suffering and superfluous injuries. Pakistan currently has no civilian anti-mine programme in action though military engineering units are deployed in landmine contaminated areas for demining purposes.[46] The country has not made any official statements regarding abstinence from manufacturing landmines[47] and its ordnance factory has produced anti-vehicle mines and six types of anti-personnel mines.[48]
Human Rights Watch (HRW) argues that by using anti-personnel mines, Pakistan is violating the customary international humanitarian law since such mines are indiscriminate in nature and their limited military usage outweighs their negative humanitarian consequences.[49] As the Pak-India border is heavily mined which continues inflicting civilian and military casualties, ICBL wrote letters to India and Pakistan and urged the countries to refrain further from laying mines along their borders.[50] Even though no official records exist on recent mining of the India-Pakistan border and Pakistan military claims it is making demining efforts, the areas along Kashmir’s LOC reports casualties to date.
Pakistan is a party to the Convention on Prohibition or Restrictions on the Use of Certain Conventional Weapons (CCW) and its five protocols, including Amended Protocol II (AP-II) which effectively regulates anti-personnel landmines. In 2007, Pakistan’s ordnance factories incorporated self-destruct/self-deactivation mechanism in their production of anti-personnel mines to meet Additional Protocol-II requirements.[51] In the same year, the country gave a briefing on its mining programme that it had met the specifications on the detectability of mines to meet the requirements of Additional Protocol-II.[52] In 2018, Pakistan made another statement that the country is fully compliant with the provisions of the said protocol and used landmines only for defence purposes, which was done by keeping in mind international norms, safety parameters, and humanitarian considerations.[53] It further stated that landmines were marked, fenced, and monitored by the Pakistan military, which is in compliance with Article 5 of Additional Protocol-II.[54] In addition to this, Pakistan states that it also adheres to the ban on all exports of mines[55] and that the private sector is not allowed to manufacture or trade in landmines.[56]
Article 7 and 8 of the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons Protocol V mandates assistance with respect to existing explosive remnants of war through a mine action programme. In most countries, this is in the form of mine action centres which introduce mine action programmes that focus on the eradication of landmines and explosive remnants of war, provide risk education to people living in mine contaminated zones and also assist victims of landmine explosions. Pakistan does not have a mine action centre and in April 2011, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs informed the Landmine Monitor that a mine action facility could not be established in the country due to insufficient resources.[57] According to the Sustainable Peace and Development Organization (SPADO), the Government of Pakistan does not permit NGOs to undertake any mine clearance action since only the Army Corps of Engineers, the Frontier Corps and the police are permitted to conduct ad hoc mine clearance. No data is released by these authorities and there is absolutely no existing mechanism for coordinating mine actions. The NGOs cater to the task of providing risk education (RE) and victim assistance in mine contaminated zones within the country. However, due to security threats in affected regions and a complex system for issuing permits for humanitarian mine action no streamlined procedure is adopted for coordination amongst NGOs.[58]
Recommendations
Pakistan should accede to the Mine Ban Treaty since landmines, as indiscriminate weapons which launch indiscriminate attacks and cause superfluous suffering, violate international humanitarian law. Also, while the notion of demining contaminated areas is important, the continual production of landmines and other explosive devices has further escalated the issue of these disastrous weapons falling into the hands of non-state actors. The ban on the export of landmines is not enough to control and regulate the safe use of landmines because smuggling of landmines by non-state actors is very common between Afghanistan and Pakistan as reported by SPADO.[59] The presence of planted landmines within Pakistan constitutes the most significant barrier to sustainable development. This is because Pakistan is an agrarian country and these landmines affect both agriculture and livestock.
It is essential that Pakistan establish a mine action centre that can introduce a national mine action programme to provide victim assistance and mine risk education (MRE) to civilians exposed to landmines.[60] The provincial governments should be directed to coordinate with the centre for the implementation of the programme. The Federal government should provide funds to provincial governments especially those of KPK and Balochistan to carry out their respective impact and technical surveys. The Federal Government should seek assistance from mine action agencies worldwide and ensure that all mine clearing personnel in conflict-affected areas are properly equipped and trained. Since Pakistan doesn’t have a formal risk education (RE) program as of now, the Federal Government should engage international organizations such as UNICEF, Mines Advisory Group, Handicap International and the Swiss Foundation for Demining (FSD) to conduct risk education activities in conflict-affected and mine contaminated areas.[61] Students, especially those living in conflict-affected zones, should be taught mine risk education as part of their school syllabus.
It is equally important for the Federal Government to introduce rehabilitation programs including medical and emergency care.[62] Proper first aid and surgical facilities for landmine victims should be provided. The government should undertake effective economic measures to generate employment for the victims of mine blast and legal heirs of those deceased and provide them with monetary compensations. Survivor participation should be encouraged and socio-economic benefits should be extended to persons with disabilities by engaging the ministries of Health, Social Welfare and Special Education.[63] To ensure social security of the victims and their families the provincial governments should provide them with education, vocational training, economic rehabilitation and micro credit schemes. The provincial governments should address the issue of disabled landmine victims by constructing handicap accessible buildings. The affected persons should be able to benefit from procedures of physical rehabilitation such as prosthetics at the expense of the State treasury or the social welfare organizations shall be engaged for this task.[64] The provincial governments should establish a database of the landmine victims in order to keep track of their progress, plan for their social benefit and provide them with required services via an outreach programme.
Conclusion
Pakistan must clear mine contaminated areas as a matter of priority and should consider acceding to the mine ban treaty. The loss incurred due to landmines exceed the defense purposes of laying them. The scant resources to cater to mine action, high rate of casualties due to mine explosions, and the internal conflicts between non-state armed groups and security officials poses a serious threat to the strategic stability of Pakistan in South Asia. As a result, Pakistan should address the issues of landmines and unexploded ordnance with India and Afghanistan and agree to demine their borders, for the sake of the civilians who reside there and suffer unnecessarily.
References
[1] ‘Global Mapping and Analysis of Anti-Vehicle Mine Incidents in 2017’, GICHD: SIPRI (Geneva, 2018)
[2] ibid.
[3] ‘Addressing the Impact of Landmines and Explosive Remnants of War in Pakistan’, SPADO (2012) < http://www.genevacall.org/wp-content/uploads/dlm_uploads/2013/12/The-Impact-of-Landmines-and-Explosive-Remnants-of-War-in-Pakistan.pdf> accessed 8 December 2021
[4] ibid.
[5] The accepted legal definition is contained in Article 2 of Protocol II of the 1980 UN Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons
[6] Ibid
[7] ‘The landmine crises: designated to kill and injure, to impede’, MLPD International Committee (1994) < http://www.ccdonline.ca/en/international/landmines/crisismlpd> accessed 8 December 2021
[8] ICRC, ‘Anti-personnel Landmines – Friend or Foe?’ (2006) <https://www.icrc.org/en/doc/assets/files/other/icrc_002_0654.pdf> accessed 3 December 2021
[9] Norman Edgar Youngblood IV, ‘The Development of Landmine Welfare’ (December 2002) <https://ttu-ir.tdl.org> accessed 3 December 2021
[10] Ibid
[11] Ibid
[12] Alternative technologies to replace antipersonnel landmines, National Academy Press (2001) < https://www.nap.edu/read/10071/chapter/3#11> accessed 3 December 2021
[13] Ibid
[14] ICRC, ‘Anti-personnel Landmines – Friend or Foe?’ (2006) <https://www.icrc.org/en/doc/assets/files/other/icrc_002_0654.pdf> accessed 3 December 2021
[15] Ibid
[16] Human Rights Watch Backgrounder, ‘Recent Landmine Use by India and Pakistan’ (2002) <https://www.hrw.org/legacy/backgrounder/arms/ind-pak-landmines.htm) accessed 3 December 2021
[17] Statement of Pakistan, 16th Meeting of the States Parties to the APMBC, Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons (CCW) Amended Protocol II Article 13 Report (2017)
[18] ICRC, ‘Anti-personnel Landmines – Friend or Foe?’ (2006) <https://www.icrc.org/en/doc/assets/files/other/icrc_002_0654.pdf> accessed 3 December 2021
[19] Norman Edgar Youngblood IV, ‘The Development of Landmine Welfare’ (December 2002) <https://ttu-ir.tdl.org> accessed 3 December 2021
[20] Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons (CCW) Amended Protocol II Article 13 Report (16 August 2006 to 15 August 2007)
[21] Country profile: Pakistan: Mine Action, ICBL-CMC (2012) <http://archives.the-monitor.org/index.php/cp/display/region_profiles/theme/2097> accessed 3 December 2021
[22] Ibid
[23] ‘UXOs continue to endanger life in isolated tribal belt’, IRIN (The New Humanitarian, 26 November 2004) <https://www.thenewhumanitarian.org/fr/node/195529> accessed 4 December 2021
[24] Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons (CCW) Article 13 Report (2017)
[25] ‘The Taliban are defeated, but their minefields continue to bleed South Waziristan’ (The Express Tribune, 13 February 2018) <https://tribune.com.pk/story/1633522/1-taliban-defeated-minefields-continue-bleed-south-waziristan> accessed 4 December 2021
[26] Country profile: Pakistan: Casualties and Victim Assistance, ICBL-CMC (2013) < http://archives.the-monitor.org/index.php/cp/display/region_profiles/theme/3771> accessed 4 December 2021
[27] ‘Summer brings with it landmines in Azad Kashmir’, (Pakistan Today, 6 July 2018) <https://www.pakistantoday.com.pk/2018/07/06/summer-brings-with-it-landmines-in-pakistani-kashmir/> accessed 4 December 2021;‘UNICEF deeply concerned by death and injury of children due to landmine and grenade explosions in Pakistan’ UNICEF (Pakistan, 6 June 2021) <https://www.unicef.org/pakistan/press-releases/unicef-deeply-concerned-death-and-injury-children-due-landmine-and-grenade> accessed 4 December 2021; ‘Landmines in Ex-FATA’ (DAWN, 27 June 2021) <https://www.dawn.com/news/1631747/landmines-in-ex-fata> accessed 4 December 2021
[28] The Sustainable Peace and Development Organization conducts research on landmines covering policy, mine action, stockpiles, use, casualties and victim’s assistance. SPADO is also maintaining a research database of landmines and it is committed to pushing the country forward into signing the mine ban treaty.
[29] Zofeen Ibrahim, ‘Displace Pashtuns Return to Find Homes “Teeming” with Landmines’, IPS (26 April 2018) < https://reliefweb.int/report/pakistan/displaced-pashtuns-return-find-homes-teeming-landmines> accessed 4 December 2021
[30] ‘Global Mapping and Analysis of Anti-Vehicle Mine Incidents in 2017’, GICHD: SIPRI (Geneva, 2018)
[31] Saadat Ali, Shahabullah Yousafzai, ‘The killers underground’ (The Express Tribune, 20 November 2017) <https://tribune.com.pk/story/1562782/the-killers-underground> accessed 15 December 2021
[32] ibid.
[33] ‘Woman loses her leg to a landmine in South Waziristan’(Samaa News, 5 April 2019) < https://www.samaa.tv/news/2019/04/woman-loses-her-leg-to-a-landmine-in-south-waziristan/> accessed 4 December 2021; ‘Pak Army sepoy martyred in North Waziristan terrorist attack’ (Dunya News, 1 June 2019) < https://dunyanews.tv/en/Pakistan/494299-Pakistan-Army-sepoy-martyred-North-Waziristan-terrorist-attack> accessed 4 December 2021
[34] ‘Landmines still a threat in tribal region, claim speakers’ (Dawn, 6 April 2019) <https://www.dawn.com/news/1474175/landmines-still-a-threat-in-tribal-region-claim-speakers> accessed 4 December 2021
[35] ‘Unicef concerned over landmine blasts along Afghan border’ (Dawn, 7 June 2021) <https://www.dawn.com/news/1627985> accessed 14 December 2021
[36] ‘Landmines in Ex-FATA’ (DAWN, 27 June 2021) <https://www.dawn.com/news/1631747/landmines-in-ex-fata> accessed 14 December 2021
[37] ‘PHC orders action on S.Waziristan landmine complaints’ (Dawn, 15 October 2021)
[38] Ibid
[39] Sama Faruqi, ‘Special report: toying with death’ (Dawn, 1 March 2020) <https://www.dawn.com/news/1530288> accessed 15 December 2021; Landmine & Cluster Munition Monitor, Pakistan, Mine Ban Policy, Updated October 7, 2019 <http://www.the-monitor.org/en-gb/reports/2019/pakistan/mine-ban-policy.aspx#ftn13>
[40] See inter alia, Article 35(2), 48, Article 51 of the Additional Protocol I (1977) to the Geneva Conventions of 1949
[41] 1980 Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons <https://www.icrc.org/en/document/1980-convention-certain-conventional-weapons>
[42] See. http://www.icbl.org/en-gb/home.aspx
[43] See. http://www.icbl.org/media/604037/treatyenglish.pdf
[44] Ibid
[45] UNODA, Landmines <https://www.un.org/disarmament/convarms/landmines/> accessed 6 December 2021
[46] Pakistan mine action review < https://www.mineactionreview.org/assets/downloads/Pakistan-Clearing-the-Mines-2018.pdf> accessed 6 December 2021
[47] Landmine Monitor Report (2020), ICBL-CMC <https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/LM2020.pdf> accessed 14 December 2021
[48] Ibid
[49] ‘Recent landmine use by India and Pakistan’, HRW (2002) < https://www.hrw.org/legacy/backgrounder/arms/ind-pak-landmines.htm> accessed 6 December 2021
[50] Ibid
[51] Country profile: Pakistan: Mine Action, ICBL-CMC (2012) <http://archives.the-monitor.org/index.php/cp/display/region_profiles/theme/2097> accessed 6 December 2021
[52] Ibid
[53] Mine Ban Treaty Seventeenth Meeting of States Parties (Geneva, 26 November 2018) < https://www.apminebanconvention.org/fileadmin/APMBC/MSP/17MSP/Day_1_statements/7-gev-Pakistan-26Nov2018.pdf> accessed 6 December 2021
[54] Ibid
[55] See. Export Policy Order 2020, GoP (25 September 2020) <https://www.commerce.gov.pk/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/Export-Policy-Order-25-09-2020.pdf> accessed 6 December 2021
[56] Mine Ban Treaty Sixteenth Meeting of States Parties (Vienna, 19 December 2017) < https://www.apminebanconvention.org/fileadmin/APMBC/MSP/16MSP/day2/07_GENERAL_STATEMENTS_-_Pakistan.pdf> accessed 6 December 2021
[57] Interview with Khalil Ur Rehman, Director Disarmament Division, MOFA (Islamabad, 9 April 2011)
[58] ‘Addressing the Impact of Landmines and Explosive Remnants of War in Pakistan’, SPADO (2012) < http://www.genevacall.org/wp-content/uploads/dlm_uploads/2013/12/The-Impact-of-Landmines-and-Explosive-Remnants-of-War-in-Pakistan.pdf> accessed 15 December 2021
[59] ‘Addressing the Impact of Landmines and Explosive Remnants of War in Pakistan’, SPADO (2012) < http://www.genevacall.org/wp-content/uploads/dlm_uploads/2013/12/The-Impact-of-Landmines-and-Explosive-Remnants-of-War-in-Pakistan.pdf> accessed 8 December 2021
[60] Ibid
[61] Country profile: Pakistan: Mine Action, ICBL-CMC (2013) <http://archives.the-monitor.org/index.php/cp/display/region_profiles/theme/2941> accessed 8 December 2021
[62] Ibid
[63] Ibid
[64] Ibid
